English 102 Essays - Reconstruction Era, Sharecropping,

English 102 Jeff Stayton Section 39 February 15, 2000 Why Reconstruction failed The reconstruction of the south was the period during and after the Civil War where several different groups in the government tried to solve the economic, political, and social problems that arose as a result of the Civil War. It was a time of disorder and chaos. Southern whites rejected all forms of equality and blacks wanted nothing but full freedom and land of their own. This led to frequent and inevitable riots. Reconstruction lasted from 1865 to 1877 and was one of the most controversial periods in the nation's history. People still debate its successes and failures. Many people blames Reconstruction failure on black politics, calling it Negro government. Even some newspapers that were in favor of Reconstruction blamed the black legislatures. Foner wrote, Ironically, even as racism waned as an explicit component of the Northern Democratic appeal, it gained a hold on respectable Republican opinion, as a convenient explanation for Reconstruction's failure. Black politicians could have been the demise of Reconstruction. Another cause of Reconstruction could have been the Court's intervention. Foner stated, Previously, the Court had proved reluctant to intervene in Reconstruction controversies. The Compromise of 1877 between the Republicans and Democrats, occurring in January of that year, was the solution to the contested Presidential election of 1876 and furthermore brought an end to the period of Reconstruction following the Civil War. The banks could have also caused the failure of Reconstruction to speed up. The Freedman's Savings Bank went under with no money to pay its depositors. The bank held thousands of black's (Freedman) money. In June 1874, with only $31,000 on hand to cover obligations to its 61,000 depositors, the Freedman's Savings Bank suspended operations. One of the main reasons for the failure of Reconstruction was the dropped prices of crops. Many farmers and sharecroppers could not live off what they earned. The depression caused the price of cotton to nearly drop by 50%. Many of the main crops such as: tobacco, rice, and sugar also declined. The depression disrupted commerce, bankrupted merchants, seriously undermined the economic situation or artisans, and all but eliminated prospects for social mobility among unskilled laborers of both races. Reconstruction failure reflects on the people of America. Presidential Reconstruction under Lincoln and Johnson demonstrates the difficulties inherent in reshaping the South after the Civil War. The lack of northern vision concerning the postwar South, disputes between Congress and the Presidency over lines of authority, and the unwillingness of southern whites to allow blacks any significant power in southern society were main reasons that Reconstruction failed. Even though Reconstruction failed, at least we tried but some people have to learn how to change. Reconstruction changed the way of life for blacks. Some changes were good and some changes made life difficult, but overall the blacks made it out of slavery safely. Reconstruction was the original beginning of the Civil Rights Act. The fact that African-Americans had made it so far gave them the strength to keep going and fight for what they believe in.

English 102 Essays - Reconstruction Era, Sharecropping,

English 102 Jeff Stayton Section 39 February 15, 2000 Why Reconstruction failed The reconstruction of the south was the period during and after the Civil War where several different groups in the government tried to solve the economic, political, and social problems that arose as a result of the Civil War. It was a time of disorder and chaos. Southern whites rejected all forms of equality and blacks wanted nothing but full freedom and land of their own. This led to frequent and inevitable riots. Reconstruction lasted from 1865 to 1877 and was one of the most controversial periods in the nation's history. People still debate its successes and failures. Many people blames Reconstruction failure on black politics, calling it Negro government. Even some newspapers that were in favor of Reconstruction blamed the black legislatures. Foner wrote, Ironically, even as racism waned as an explicit component of the Northern Democratic appeal, it gained a hold on respectable Republican opinion, as a convenient explanation for Reconstruction's failure. Black politicians could have been the demise of Reconstruction. Another cause of Reconstruction could have been the Court's intervention. Foner stated, Previously, the Court had proved reluctant to intervene in Reconstruction controversies. The Compromise of 1877 between the Republicans and Democrats, occurring in January of that year, was the solution to the contested Presidential election of 1876 and furthermore brought an end to the period of Reconstruction following the Civil War. The banks could have also caused the failure of Reconstruction to speed up. The Freedman's Savings Bank went under with no money to pay its depositors. The bank held thousands of black's (Freedman) money. In June 1874, with only $31,000 on hand to cover obligations to its 61,000 depositors, the Freedman's Savings Bank suspended operations. One of the main reasons for the failure of Reconstruction was the dropped prices of crops. Many farmers and sharecroppers could not live off what they earned. The depression caused the price of cotton to nearly drop by 50%. Many of the main crops such as: tobacco, rice, and sugar also declined. The depression disrupted commerce, bankrupted merchants, seriously undermined the economic situation or artisans, and all but eliminated prospects for social mobility among unskilled laborers of both races. Reconstruction failure reflects on the people of America. Presidential Reconstruction under Lincoln and Johnson demonstrates the difficulties inherent in reshaping the South after the Civil War. The lack of northern vision concerning the postwar South, disputes between Congress and the Presidency over lines of authority, and the unwillingness of southern whites to allow blacks any significant power in southern society were main reasons that Reconstruction failed. Even though Reconstruction failed, at least we tried but some people have to learn how to change. Reconstruction changed the way of life for blacks. Some changes were good and some changes made life difficult, but overall the blacks made it out of slavery safely. Reconstruction was the original beginning of the Civil Rights Act. The fact that African-Americans had made it so far gave them the strength to keep going and fight for what they believe in.

An Unpaid Option An Illustrative Essay Template (MLA Sample Paper)

An Unpaid Option An Illustrative Essay Template (MLA Sample Paper) What Is MLA Format? MLA Format is a standard format for academic writing and citing sources within the humanities and liberal arts. MLA refers to a set of rules and formatting guidelines that are used by researchers. These standards are described in the MLA Handbook for writers of research papers (8-th edition) which is a 300-page manual describing every aspect of MLA paper writing. Below you will find a great MLA essay example. Read and use it while writing your own paper. Feel free to download MLA Essay Example Name LastName Professor’s Name Course Number Day Month Year Truth Behind the War                   Media plays a great role in influencing today’s youth and changing the opinions of many. Media’s coverage is so  much influential that it can have an effect on anyone’s opinion and views.  Media at times could be good,  while at times it  could be really bad. For example, in focusing on the  issues of discrimination, it plays a very important role in letting people  know the adverse effects of  discrimination,  while on the other hand media, itself is  being responsible for the growing issues  of  discrimination.                  Ã‚  Media plays a great role during the Wartime, not just by broadcasting the war events but also by letting the people  know the reality  and the truth behind the war. They are the ones who change people’s perspective and opinion. The  techniques in addition to goals  of the media have changed radically. The media now is what bring the news of all the terror  war into everyone’s home.When the World war broke out in August 1914, the United States at once fixed its relation to the belligerents thru  proclamation  of neutrality. The days of the war, before their entry on the side of the allied powers in April 1917, were  marked with difficulties,   both in preventing violations of out neutrality and in securing proper respect for our neutral rights.  The rights and duties of neutrals were  involved.                  Ã‚  At the outbreak of the war, Great Britain notified the United States that she would be held responsible for injuries  resulting to British interests from vessels converted to warships or armed in  American ports, even though the completion of  the act of conversion took place on the high seas.  British merchant vessels, it was asserted, were armed for self-defense  only.  The position of the United States was that a merchant vessel belonging to a belligerent should not arm itself so as to  avoid capture by lawful and legitimate  processes.                  Ã‚  On April 8, 1917, the Austrian government, as Germanys ally, broke off diplomatic relations with the United States,  and in due course, the war was declared against Austria. Until all effective states agree upon the abandonment of neutrality,  those remaining  outside the agreement will insist on their right to judge for themselves as to the neutral or belligerent  character of their policy, in the case of a conflict between two or more other states. This lies in the field of policy. And as  long as the policy of neutrality may be elected, it follows that the status of neutrality will exist, together with its rights and  duties. The belligerent states will be sufficiently active in demanding that a country is impartially a country is impartially neutral. The neutral state  must itself insist upon an observance of its formally declared by the joint resolution of Congress (Cipriano, 1995).                  Ã‚  All this during the First World War was well focused on, and a clear perspective was shown through Media. There  was not any biasness and the news was broadcasted to merely let the people know what is going on in their surrounding,  and not to exaggerate a particular news. Media of that time would only broadcast what was actually happening and so it  would leave the decision to viewers hands as to what conclusion they make out from the broadcast and it had let them had  their own perspective to everything they watched rather than to force Media’s own perspective on its viewer. Change of the War Picture                  Ã‚  Previously media would emphasize a focus on the positives of wars. They paid attention to what people required  and needed to hear. There was no struggle, and money wasn’t as key an issue in becoming a journalist. The commercialism  of news was far less of an issue in the reporting of news. The news wasn’t so much unconstructive as it was upbeat and  vigorous. It was the media’s job to keep their listeners hopeful and panic free. It wasn’t concerning who could get a hold of  the most listeners by offering  the most sensational newscasts. It was about letting everyone know the truth and reality  (Jowett, ODonnell, 1992).                   But now in the present time, media offers overly negative pictures of war and its objectives and accomplishments.  A new legacy would be built: the rising of deviousness, one that imitated and showed the broader dissatisfactions with the  government. Journalism was now regarding the money and the achievement that would be wrapped around it. The  competition rose as the requirement for unconstructiveness in the life unraveled. Good, decent, honest and optimistic news  would no longer be found.   Media vs. Military Business                   We shall have a look at how the media interferes in the military business, so to have a clear vision of how  things actually are. Every time a society has permitted its military establishment to insulate itself against effective public scrutiny that  military establishment has ended up destroying the people it was supposed to protect. The independence guaranteed to the  press under the the First Amendment to that Constitution is one of the most important of the safeguards. Yet every bureaucrat  knows that power flows from each increment of information he or she can garner and hold tight. To the extent that our  society permits such bureaucratic self-interest to restrict access by the public to the business of government – in particular,  its military business – the First Amendment   becomes meaningless.                   Very few citizens have the time and means to search out government information vital to their well-being. As a  result, access means mainly access by the press, like it or not.  In a speech to the National Newspaper Association  following the end of the war,   General Colin L. Powell, chairman of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, acknowledged that if the  Iraqi army had moved, in August 1990,   as it was entirely capable of doing, to occupy the principal Saudi Arabian airfields  and ports, the United States would have been in enormous difficulty. What General Powell did not tell his audience, but what  Major General Edward B. Atkeson, formerly of the Central Intelligence Agency, had made plain more than three years earlier  in an article in Armed Forces Journal International was that for a period of several weeks, until major U.S. land and air forces  could be inserted, a determined, large-scale Iraqi invasion could be stopped only by n uclear weapons.                   But American journalism has neither the technical competence to recognize the long-term implications of an article  such as General Atkesons nor the structural means to relate it to a crisis that occurs years, or even months, later. So the  public – American or otherwise – was never informed that in declaring his intention to defeat Iraqi aggression the president of  the United States was, in fact, committing the United States to nuclear war during the period when the first token U.S. land  forces flown to the region were in danger of being overrun. Passion for Seeking Out the Truth                   As with every major military story since the end of World War, the press failed. It did not fail because of government censorship. Rather, it failed because of the inadequacies of its own training and organization, deficiencies that prevented it from reporting matters of crucial importance, even when all of the essential facts were in the public domain.                   The media, much similar to the American people, began losing optimism in the government, so broadcasters  subsequently would create such newscasts that would also fill the American people with a strong sense of doubt. A major  loss to the reliability of the public was the leaking of information to the public from the Pentagon Papers. These documents  were discovered by journalists to contain far higher rates of American fatalities and far less victorious battles than the  publicly released government statistics had specified. No longer would the press recognize the government press releases;  now they began more analytical journalism to check the truth of the official reports.                   We need to realize that media is there to raise the voice for truth, not to support the exaggeration of the simple,   uncomplicated anecdote. What the media at this stage need to do is  to make an attempt and realize that to ‘cover a war and  for a nation determined to comprehend it, there  is merely one course. They must share a passion for seeking out the truth’  (DeParle, 1991). MediAffect                   Where do the media fit in this procedure? An average American high school graduate spends more time in front of  the TV than in the classroom. The mass media is an influential socializing agent. Media is not restricted to the contented of  media messages. Media have an effect on how we learn regarding our world and interrelate with one another. Media actually  reconcile our relationship with social institutions. We base a large amount of our knowledge on government news accounts,  not knowledge. We are reliant on the media for what we distinguish and how we narrate to the world of politics due to the  media-politics connection. We read or   watch political discussions followed by immediate analysis as well as commentary by  experts. Politicians rely on media to converse their message. Related dynamics are present in other mediated events such  as televised sports and televangelism. Media is part of our usual relations with family and frie nds. They describe our  communication with other people on a daily foundation as a diversion, sources of disagreement, or a uniting force. Media  have an impact on society not merely through the contented of the message but also through the procedure.    DeParle, Jason. Covering the War†. New York Times, 5 May 1991. Venzon, Anne Cipriano. The United States in the First World War. Garland Publishing, 1995. Jowett, G. S., and ODonnell, Victoria. Propaganda and Persuasion. 2nd ed., Sage Press, 1992. Edward B. Atkeson. â€Å"The Persian Gulf. Still a Vital U.S. Interest?† Armed Forces Journal International, April 1987): 46-56 Get your free MLA Essay template only today!

American Political Thoughts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

American Political Thoughts - Essay Example It is imperative that both the great depression that occurred in 1930s and the late 2000s great recession completely draws the difference between American presidents especially Franklin Roosevelt, George Bush and Barack Obama. The two economic crises caused banking-financial crisis, great surge in unemployment, and severe stock market slump. It is imperious to understand that in all the cases, both the presidents pledged to eliminate the economic crises and provide a state of calm within America. The paper explores how the how the three presidents managed to retain economic crisis during their era. In addition, the paper analyses significant similarities and differences in the policies employed by each administration in maintaining economic levels. The great depression remained as the historic economic crisis in western industrialized countries that started from 1929 and ended in 1940. The depression remained as the longest economic crises in American history marked by significant decline in investment, rising levels of unemployment, and decrease in living standards of American people. The great economic downtown resulted from Wall Street cash crash and the great drought that affected agricultural activities on the south (Skocpol and Jacobs 15). The great depression started during President Hoover era and proceed during Franklin Roosevelt presidency. During the start of great depression in 1929, American people blamed President Herbert Hoover for his policies that may have resulted into economic down town. When Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) won the 1932 presidential elections, he began the longest journey of recovering the depressed economy. Roosevelt immediately assured American people of the possibility of economic recovery and then initiated the New Deal policies aimed at normalizing the depression. Franklin D Roosevelt became the president of United States in 1932 and succeeded Herbert Hoover. The beginning of his

Ch 2 DBA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 15000 words

Ch 2 DBA - Essay Example Previously, traditional economies and organisations relied upon assets such as capital and land having physical values. In the modern economy, this trend has changed and knowledge is now the key factor to gaining competitive advantage (Beijerse, 1999). In the contemporary business world, knowledge sharing fundamentally means that employees contribute to knowledge application, innovation, and ultimately the competitive advantage of the organisation (Wang & Noe, 2010). Knowledge sharing has distinct advantages. It is positively related to reduction in production costs, faster completion of new product development projects, team performance, firm innovation capabilities and firm performance. Firm performance includes sales growth and revenue from new products and services (Wang & Noe, 2010). Scholars have divided knowledge into two forms – explicit and tacit – when it comes to the nature of the knowledge (Nonaka et al., 2000; Smith, 2001; Lindvall & Rus, 2002). Explicit knowledge is saved in codified form in databases and can be easily conveyed to the receiver without any misunderstanding (Smith, 2001). Tacit knowledge is ‘know-why and ‘know-how’ and can be referred to as experimental knowledge. Smith (2001) describes tacit knowledge as the unarticulated part of knowledge residing in an individual ´s mind. This type of knowledge, unlike explicit knowledge, is hard to present in a written format thereby making it difficult to transfer to others or store (Smith, 2001). The knowledge sharing in organisations is dependent on the nature of the knowledge being shared (tacit and explicit knowledge). Sharing, transferring, and storing tacit and explicit knowledge differs from each other. Tacit knowledge is the unarticulated part of knowledge r esiding in the individual ´s mind (Smith, 2001). Although knowledge sharing is considered to be of a vital importance to organisations, it will not be achieved if there is lack of a knowledge sharing culture, trust, and

Evaluate at least three quality improvement processes Research Paper

Evaluate at least three quality improvement processes - Research Paper Example The report therefore compares and contrasts three forms of quality improvement processes and among the discussed process, one favorable for the company is recommended to improve the performance of the company. Introduction The Baldrige criteria for performance excellence, ISO 9000 and the Six Sigma are three quality improvement processes that provide a completely new way of helping organizations improve in their performances. The first process focuses on the estimation of performance excellence of the organization as a whole starting from the management tracking all the results as exhibited by the organization. ISO 9000 on the other hand is a model that gives much weight on the product or the service and how it performs in the market. The inefficiencies of the products or the service are then fixed for better performance (Harrington, 2001). In this category, we have the six sigma; this constantly measures the quality of the product while improving the engineering process to result in to an improvement of the process and saves the costs of the organization. In an effort to know which will be applicable to improving the performance of this company in terms of saving cots and realizing profitability, we have to analyze the three intensively (Dew & Nearing, 2004). a. Baldrige Criteria for Performance Excellence The Baldrige Criteria for Performance Excellence as a measure that has helped many organizations achieve their goals is today not only acceptable in the US but also worldwide. This is due to its ability to steer organizations through stiff competitive environment through the improvement of their performances. The criterion cuts across all organizations right from healthcare to education of profit and nonprofit organizations by responding swiftly to current challenges (Brown, 2001). They do this by being open and transparent in the governance of the organizations as well as the ethics involved. The criterion is aimed at creating value for the customers of the business. Irrespective of the form of organization the criteria gives a valuable framework that is able to help in the planning and achieving under any environment. This is because it is able to assess organizational performance on a wide range of key business indicators, align the resources available, and improve communication, productivity and effectiveness for the achievement of the organizational goals (Edosomwan & Edosomwan, 2008). The criterion has evolved over time with its characteristics, goals and purposes remaining the same. The criteria lay its focus on all the results of the performances of the organization for balancing all the strategies of the firm. It does not prescribe and is adaptable hence allowing for creativity and flexibility in the organization to enable achievement of the goals. Supports the systems in place and at the same time supporting goals based diagnosis for future improvements (Brown, 2001). The goals of the criteria are delivery, improvement, organi zational and personal learning. The purpose of the criteria is to allow for its use by organizations of all categories for the sake of self assessment and training so as to develop performance of the businesses. The system is able to realize an achievement of its purpose by stressing on leadership, strategic planning, measurement, and analysis and knowledge management. Others are, focus on the workforce, management of the process and results (Edosomwan & Edo

Globalisation and the Concept of Global Citizenship

Globalisation and the Concept of Global Citizenship â€Å"As globalisation promotes a free-flow of people, ideas and products across national boundaries, individuals will be more identified as global citizens and less prone to xenophobic attitudes.† Discuss. While globalisation promotes a free-flow of people, ideas, and products across national boundaries, it provides opportunities to individuals to become global citizens. However, while this essay will argue that this has made them less prone to xenophobic attitudes, globalisation has also had other impacts which may have only provoked xenophobic attitudes. This essay will examine the impact which globalisation has had on individuals in the workplace, focusing on how Multinational Corporations have increased the need for globally mobile employees, therefore increasing their cultural intelligence along the way. The essay will also explore employees working within global organisations who are not globally mobile, and the impact which globalisation has had on them. The importance of cultural intelligence will also be discussed alongside the growing focus of scholars on cosmopolitan or global citizens, and finally, the essay will examine xenophobia and the impact which globalisation has had upon xenophobic views. Globalisation is the introduction and growth of products, people, information, and money across borders and is an important impact on the shape of national identities and relationships (Ariely, 2011).   Arnett (2002) argues that globalisation is not just a historical process but is also a change in mind-set of citizens around the world and has positively and sometimes negatively redefined national identity and culture. In effect, globalisation defines the world in which we live, and has changed the way in which citizens identify themselves (Ariely, 2011 & Arnett, 2002). However, some researchers have argued that in the process globalisation has undermined national cultures and identity – creating what is moving towards a single identity for all global citizens (Smith, 2007 & Held, McGrew & Perraton, 1999). Effectively, globalisation has been guided by â€Å"economic forces† (Sideri, 1997. Pg.38) with the actions and growth of Multinational Corporations (MNC’s) furthering globalisation (Buckley & Ghauri, 2004). With MNC’s comes the need for the retention and transfer of knowledge between operating units and countries (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Expatriates (Expats) are used by MNC’s for three main reasons; to fill positions where no suitable candidate exists in the host country, as an opportunity to develop the expatriate’s skills, and most importantly; to transfer important knowledge and corporate culture from home to host countries (Collings et al, 2007). Within MNC’s expats will work with people of many different nationalities, and globalisation is only expediting the mobility required of expatriates, therefore, the number of cultures in which expatriates are working in and becoming accustomed to is increasing (Lee, 2014). Lee (2014) argues that this is exposure to new cultures has increased the number of people which identify as learned bi-culturals, and who feel accustomed to 2 or more cultures after experiencing the identity negotiation process. The knowledge and understanding of different cultures that being bi-cultural brings allows these individuals to adapt quickly and become more adept to different situations (Hong et al, 2000 & Lee, 2014). While individuals will generally undergo an identity negotiation process when entering employment with a new organisation, international experience adds to this further (Lee, 2014). Sanchez et al (2000) explain that during the adjustment process to working within a different culture, an individual may become more attached to their home unit, or alternatively, become more attached to their host unit. This acculturation is essentially a process leading to cultural changes within the individual after interacting with members of different cultures (Lee, 2014), and can be portrayed in a number of strategies by the individual when operating in different cultures. This impacts their identification and adaptation with their home and host country and can lead to positive outcomes – however, two of the outcomes of acculturation can be marginalisation or separation, where an individual does not identify with the host country (Lee, 2014 & Berry, 2005). Another theory of culture acquisition is the identity negotiation process, where when individuals encounter a new culture question their values and beliefs leading to a renegotiation of their own identity through experimentation and reflection (Lee, 2014). While expats seem to have the most experience with operating within different cultures, globalisation has meant that even individuals working within their home country can experience different cultures too (Lee, 2014). Lee (2014) argues that individuals working in organisations undergoing international mergers and acquisitions, as well as those with international subsidiaries can develop an understanding of different cultures. Experience of work within different international contexts may lead individuals to develop a greater understanding of their own as well as different ways of undertaking work (Lee, 2014). It is important to note however, that an individual who is globally mobile may not automatically expose themselves to the culture of the country in which they are working. As mentioned previously, outcomes of acculturation such as marginalisation or separation can mean that the expatriate exhibits low attachment to the society in which they are working. It could therefore be argued that both expatriation and working within a culturally diverse and international organisation could develop an individual’s global identity. Gupta and Govindarajan (2002) explain that a global identity is the awareness of different cultures and the openness to the integration of these cultures to create a competitive advantage. Lee (2018) argues that this competence and adaptability is gained through 3 steps; the understanding of the individuals own culture and cultural lens, acquiring knowledge of other cultures, and improving one’s cultural intelligence. The exposure to different cultures through international assignments and working within a global organisation can assist with the gaining of knowledge of different norms and values (Crowne, 2008). This exposure to different cultures needn’t just be through work either, Crowne (2008) argues that globalisation has allowed for exposure to different cultures through travel, study, and media such as television and film. While some of these methods may have a greater impact, they are all important to the development of an understanding of different cultures. Crowne (2008) argues that any exposure to different cultures is directly associated with an individual’s cultural intelligence, yet some methods of exposure such as expatriation, international education and travel have a greater impact. Cultural intelligence is defined as an individual’s ability to effectively adapt to new cultures and has been found to have a positive impact on integration into multicultural teams (Earley, 2002). Furthermore, employees with higher cultural intelligence are able to adjust more easily to new cultures and show greater performance within multicultural teams and tasks (Templer et al, 2006). Cultural intelligence is born through 4 main dimensions; Cognitive – gaining the knowledge of values and norms of different cultures, Motivational – the commitment to acquiring new knowledge and learn, Behavioural – the ability to adapt to new cultural situations, and Metacognitive – the ability to monitor one’s self, and to adjust based on new experiences (Lee, 2018 & Ang et al, 2007). The importance of cultural intelligence cannot be underestimated, as it assists individuals with seeing past the stereotypes and perhaps xenophobic views of other cultures (Lee, 2018). Furthermore, it stops an individual from casting judgement until all of the facts are known and available (Triandis, 2006 & Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Interestingly, cultural intelligence is directly linked to cross-cultural competence, which reduces the pressure that may be associated with handling difficult decisions in culturally different environments and can increases effectiveness (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Of course, the cultural intelligence of the majority of individuals will increase through international assignments and working within a global organisation. Elenkov & Manev (2009) further this argument and explain that cultural intelligence is vital for managers within organisations. The GLOBE project found that the leadership styles favoured or expected from country to country vary depending on the cultural variables found in that context (Dorfman et al, 2002), and it can be seen that the cultural intelligence and adaptability of managers and individuals is vital to their performance and effectiveness in different cultures (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). It can therefore be argued that the greater the cultural intelligence of an individual, the more understanding, aware and open they should be to different cultures and therefore less prone to xenophobic attitudes (Lee, 2014). The emerging concept of cosmopolitan global citizens is one still in debate. In its early conception, cosmopolitanism was seen to be an outlook which transcended national boundaries and complemented cultural intelligence (Woodward et al, 2008). The concept has now been developed to incorporate institutional, political, and cultural dimensions (Woodward et al, 2008). From a cultural perspective, most researchers have agreed that cosmopolitanism can be seen as an openness to different cultures as well as the values and beliefs that they may hold. Woodward et al (2008) argue that while an individual does not need to be globally mobile to hold cosmopolitan values, the cultural exposure that expatriates experience may assist them with gaining the attitudes and values associated with cosmopolitanism (Lee, 2014). Furthermore, cosmopolitan citizens are seen to be more engaged with others that identify as cosmopolitan citizens and hold similar worldviews (Lee, 2014). The concept therefore of a cosmopolitan is that of an individual who defines themselves less as part of a single national or cultural identity, and more as a global citizen – who should be less prone to xenophobic attitudes (Lee, 2014). This is supported by Ariely (2017) who showed that identifying as a cosmopolitan reduces xenophobic attitudes, a relationship which is moderated by the level of globalisation in the individuals home country, with those exhibiting higher levels of globalisation demonstrating a stronger negative relation between cosmopolitanism and xenophobic attitudes. The dictionary definition of xenophobia is the fear or hatred of strangers or foreigners, it is usually thought that the term overlaps with racism, however, xenophobic behaviour is based on the idea that an individual is different due to being a member of a different nation or social group (UNESCO, 2018). Ariely (2011) argues that the idea of xenophobia can be based on social identity theory which defines social identity as the differences between social groups with members feeling more strongly associated to the group in which they belong. Xenophobic views are therefore the result of social groups – such as nations and culture, being different from one another (Ariely, 2011). Interestingly, the results of globalisation such as the development of cosmopolitan citizens, bi-culturals and individuals showing a strong cultural intelligence seems to show that globalisation is causing to move towards a more homogenous global citizen identity, instead of heterogeneous national identities (Ariely, 2011). Such â€Å"superordinate† identities could reduce or eliminate differences between national identities, and therefore reduce xenophobic views. It is also important to recognise that some research has shown globalisation to have the opposite effect, heightening nationalistic identities and in turn perhaps causing xenophobic views against those seen with a different social or national identity (Ariely, 2011). Interestingly, Ariely (2011) found that in certain countries, while globalisation may decrease xenophobic attitudes in some people, it can increase them in others. While this study was actually based on xenophobic views against immigrants it paints an interesting picture that globalisation can have many different impacts on different people within the same country, and that context is incredibly important (Ariely, 2011). There are also negative aspects to consider such as the accelerated flows of terrorism, which have only promoted xenophobic attitudes due to the placing of blame on the lack of national borders – which globalisation has had a hand in reducing (Heine & Thakur, 2011). This essay explored the impact which globalisation has had upon individuals around the world. Whether a cosmopolitan citizen, learned or born bi-cultural, or an individual that has developed a strong cultural intelligence, the ability to adapt and understand other cultures seems to reduce the ownership of xenophobic attitudes. The essay found that as individuals gain a greater cultural intelligence, or identify as cosmopolitan or global citizens, they tend to identify less with their national culture/identity and identify more with a global identity. Using social identity theory from Ariely (2011), it can therefore be argued that while xenophobia is usually based on the differences between social, cultural, or national groups – the fact that more people are identifying as global citizens is reducing the differences between these groups around the world, and therefore reducing xenophobic attitudes. References Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C., Ng, K., Templer, K., Tay, C. and Chandrasekar, N. (2007). Cultural Intelligence: Its Measurement and Effects on Cultural Judgment and Decision Making, Cultural Adaptation and Task Performance. Management and Organization Review, 3(03), pp.335-371. Ariely, G. (2011). Globalization, immigration and national identity: How the level of globalization affects the relations between nationalism, constructive patriotism and attitudes toward immigrants? Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 15(4), pp.539-557. Ariely, G. (2016). Global identification, xenophobia and globalisation: A cross-national exploration. International Journal of Psychology, 52, pp.87-96. Arnett, J. (2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57(10), pp.774-783. Berry, J. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(6), pp.697-712. Buckley, P. and Ghauri, P. (2004). Globalisation, economic geography and the strategy of multinational enterprises. Journal of International Business Studies, 35(2), pp.81-98. Collings, D., Scullion, H. and Morley, M. (2007). Changing patterns of global staffing in the multinational enterprise: Challenges to the conventional expatriate assignment and emerging alternatives. Journal of World Business, 42(2), pp.198-213. Crowne, K. (2008). What leads to cultural intelligence? Business Horizons, 51(5), pp.391-399. Dorfman, P. House, R., Javidan, M., and Hanges, P. (2002). Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: an introduction to project GLOBE. Journal of World Business, 37(1), pp.3-10. Earley, P. (2002). Redefining interactions across cultures and organizations: Moving forward with cultural intelligence. Research in Organizational Behavior, 24, pp.271-299. Elenkov, D. and Manev, I. (2009). Senior expatriate leaderships effects on innovation and the role of cultural intelligence. Journal of World Business, 44(4), pp.357-369. Gupta, A. and Govindarajan, V. (2002). Cultivating a global mindset. Academy of Management Executive, 16(1), pp.116-126. Heine, J. and Thakur, R. (2018). The dark side of globalisation. [online] Available at: https://www.cigionline.org/articles/dark-side-globalisation. Held, D. and McGrew, A. (1999). Global Transformations. Cambridge: Polity. Hong, Y., Morris, M., Chiu, C. and Benet-Martà ­nez, V. (2000). Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. American Psychologist, 55(7), pp.709-720. Lee, H-J., (2018). Global Leadership and Cultural Intelligence. Lee, H-J., (2014) Global leadership practices: a cross-cultural management perspective, London: Palgrave Macmillan Sanchez, J., Spector, P. and Cooper, C. (2000). Adapting to a boundaryless world: A developmental expatriate model. Academy of Management Perspectives, 14(2), pp.96-106. Sideri, S. (1997). Globalisation and regional integration. The European Journal of Development Research, 9(1), pp.38-82. Smith, A. D. (2007). Nationalism in decline? In M. Young, E. Zuelow & A. Strum (Eds.), Nationalism in a global era (pp. 17–32). New York, NY: Routledge. Templer, K., Tay, C. and Chandrasekar, N. (2006). Motivational Cultural Intelligence, Realistic Job Preview, Realistic Living Conditions Preview, and Cross-Cultural Adjustment. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), pp.154-173. Triandis, H. (2006). Cultural Intelligence in Organizations. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), pp.20-26. UNESCO (2018). Xenophobia | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. [online] Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/xenophobia/. Woodward, I., Skrbis, Z. and Bean, C. (2008). Attitudes towards globalization and cosmopolitanism: cultural diversity, personal consumption and the national economy. The British Journal of Sociology, 59(2), pp.207-226. Globalisation and the Concept of Global Citizenship Globalisation and the Concept of Global Citizenship â€Å"As globalisation promotes a free-flow of people, ideas and products across national boundaries, individuals will be more identified as global citizens and less prone to xenophobic attitudes.† Discuss. While globalisation promotes a free-flow of people, ideas, and products across national boundaries, it provides opportunities to individuals to become global citizens. However, while this essay will argue that this has made them less prone to xenophobic attitudes, globalisation has also had other impacts which may have only provoked xenophobic attitudes. This essay will examine the impact which globalisation has had on individuals in the workplace, focusing on how Multinational Corporations have increased the need for globally mobile employees, therefore increasing their cultural intelligence along the way. The essay will also explore employees working within global organisations who are not globally mobile, and the impact which globalisation has had on them. The importance of cultural intelligence will also be discussed alongside the growing focus of scholars on cosmopolitan or global citizens, and finally, the essay will examine xenophobia and the impact which globalisation has had upon xenophobic views. Globalisation is the introduction and growth of products, people, information, and money across borders and is an important impact on the shape of national identities and relationships (Ariely, 2011).   Arnett (2002) argues that globalisation is not just a historical process but is also a change in mind-set of citizens around the world and has positively and sometimes negatively redefined national identity and culture. In effect, globalisation defines the world in which we live, and has changed the way in which citizens identify themselves (Ariely, 2011 & Arnett, 2002). However, some researchers have argued that in the process globalisation has undermined national cultures and identity – creating what is moving towards a single identity for all global citizens (Smith, 2007 & Held, McGrew & Perraton, 1999). Effectively, globalisation has been guided by â€Å"economic forces† (Sideri, 1997. Pg.38) with the actions and growth of Multinational Corporations (MNC’s) furthering globalisation (Buckley & Ghauri, 2004). With MNC’s comes the need for the retention and transfer of knowledge between operating units and countries (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Expatriates (Expats) are used by MNC’s for three main reasons; to fill positions where no suitable candidate exists in the host country, as an opportunity to develop the expatriate’s skills, and most importantly; to transfer important knowledge and corporate culture from home to host countries (Collings et al, 2007). Within MNC’s expats will work with people of many different nationalities, and globalisation is only expediting the mobility required of expatriates, therefore, the number of cultures in which expatriates are working in and becoming accustomed to is increasing (Lee, 2014). Lee (2014) argues that this is exposure to new cultures has increased the number of people which identify as learned bi-culturals, and who feel accustomed to 2 or more cultures after experiencing the identity negotiation process. The knowledge and understanding of different cultures that being bi-cultural brings allows these individuals to adapt quickly and become more adept to different situations (Hong et al, 2000 & Lee, 2014). While individuals will generally undergo an identity negotiation process when entering employment with a new organisation, international experience adds to this further (Lee, 2014). Sanchez et al (2000) explain that during the adjustment process to working within a different culture, an individual may become more attached to their home unit, or alternatively, become more attached to their host unit. This acculturation is essentially a process leading to cultural changes within the individual after interacting with members of different cultures (Lee, 2014), and can be portrayed in a number of strategies by the individual when operating in different cultures. This impacts their identification and adaptation with their home and host country and can lead to positive outcomes – however, two of the outcomes of acculturation can be marginalisation or separation, where an individual does not identify with the host country (Lee, 2014 & Berry, 2005). Another theory of culture acquisition is the identity negotiation process, where when individuals encounter a new culture question their values and beliefs leading to a renegotiation of their own identity through experimentation and reflection (Lee, 2014). While expats seem to have the most experience with operating within different cultures, globalisation has meant that even individuals working within their home country can experience different cultures too (Lee, 2014). Lee (2014) argues that individuals working in organisations undergoing international mergers and acquisitions, as well as those with international subsidiaries can develop an understanding of different cultures. Experience of work within different international contexts may lead individuals to develop a greater understanding of their own as well as different ways of undertaking work (Lee, 2014). It is important to note however, that an individual who is globally mobile may not automatically expose themselves to the culture of the country in which they are working. As mentioned previously, outcomes of acculturation such as marginalisation or separation can mean that the expatriate exhibits low attachment to the society in which they are working. It could therefore be argued that both expatriation and working within a culturally diverse and international organisation could develop an individual’s global identity. Gupta and Govindarajan (2002) explain that a global identity is the awareness of different cultures and the openness to the integration of these cultures to create a competitive advantage. Lee (2018) argues that this competence and adaptability is gained through 3 steps; the understanding of the individuals own culture and cultural lens, acquiring knowledge of other cultures, and improving one’s cultural intelligence. The exposure to different cultures through international assignments and working within a global organisation can assist with the gaining of knowledge of different norms and values (Crowne, 2008). This exposure to different cultures needn’t just be through work either, Crowne (2008) argues that globalisation has allowed for exposure to different cultures through travel, study, and media such as television and film. While some of these methods may have a greater impact, they are all important to the development of an understanding of different cultures. Crowne (2008) argues that any exposure to different cultures is directly associated with an individual’s cultural intelligence, yet some methods of exposure such as expatriation, international education and travel have a greater impact. Cultural intelligence is defined as an individual’s ability to effectively adapt to new cultures and has been found to have a positive impact on integration into multicultural teams (Earley, 2002). Furthermore, employees with higher cultural intelligence are able to adjust more easily to new cultures and show greater performance within multicultural teams and tasks (Templer et al, 2006). Cultural intelligence is born through 4 main dimensions; Cognitive – gaining the knowledge of values and norms of different cultures, Motivational – the commitment to acquiring new knowledge and learn, Behavioural – the ability to adapt to new cultural situations, and Metacognitive – the ability to monitor one’s self, and to adjust based on new experiences (Lee, 2018 & Ang et al, 2007). The importance of cultural intelligence cannot be underestimated, as it assists individuals with seeing past the stereotypes and perhaps xenophobic views of other cultures (Lee, 2018). Furthermore, it stops an individual from casting judgement until all of the facts are known and available (Triandis, 2006 & Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Interestingly, cultural intelligence is directly linked to cross-cultural competence, which reduces the pressure that may be associated with handling difficult decisions in culturally different environments and can increases effectiveness (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Of course, the cultural intelligence of the majority of individuals will increase through international assignments and working within a global organisation. Elenkov & Manev (2009) further this argument and explain that cultural intelligence is vital for managers within organisations. The GLOBE project found that the leadership styles favoured or expected from country to country vary depending on the cultural variables found in that context (Dorfman et al, 2002), and it can be seen that the cultural intelligence and adaptability of managers and individuals is vital to their performance and effectiveness in different cultures (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). It can therefore be argued that the greater the cultural intelligence of an individual, the more understanding, aware and open they should be to different cultures and therefore less prone to xenophobic attitudes (Lee, 2014). The emerging concept of cosmopolitan global citizens is one still in debate. In its early conception, cosmopolitanism was seen to be an outlook which transcended national boundaries and complemented cultural intelligence (Woodward et al, 2008). The concept has now been developed to incorporate institutional, political, and cultural dimensions (Woodward et al, 2008). From a cultural perspective, most researchers have agreed that cosmopolitanism can be seen as an openness to different cultures as well as the values and beliefs that they may hold. Woodward et al (2008) argue that while an individual does not need to be globally mobile to hold cosmopolitan values, the cultural exposure that expatriates experience may assist them with gaining the attitudes and values associated with cosmopolitanism (Lee, 2014). Furthermore, cosmopolitan citizens are seen to be more engaged with others that identify as cosmopolitan citizens and hold similar worldviews (Lee, 2014). The concept therefore of a cosmopolitan is that of an individual who defines themselves less as part of a single national or cultural identity, and more as a global citizen – who should be less prone to xenophobic attitudes (Lee, 2014). This is supported by Ariely (2017) who showed that identifying as a cosmopolitan reduces xenophobic attitudes, a relationship which is moderated by the level of globalisation in the individuals home country, with those exhibiting higher levels of globalisation demonstrating a stronger negative relation between cosmopolitanism and xenophobic attitudes. The dictionary definition of xenophobia is the fear or hatred of strangers or foreigners, it is usually thought that the term overlaps with racism, however, xenophobic behaviour is based on the idea that an individual is different due to being a member of a different nation or social group (UNESCO, 2018). Ariely (2011) argues that the idea of xenophobia can be based on social identity theory which defines social identity as the differences between social groups with members feeling more strongly associated to the group in which they belong. Xenophobic views are therefore the result of social groups – such as nations and culture, being different from one another (Ariely, 2011). Interestingly, the results of globalisation such as the development of cosmopolitan citizens, bi-culturals and individuals showing a strong cultural intelligence seems to show that globalisation is causing to move towards a more homogenous global citizen identity, instead of heterogeneous national identities (Ariely, 2011). Such â€Å"superordinate† identities could reduce or eliminate differences between national identities, and therefore reduce xenophobic views. It is also important to recognise that some research has shown globalisation to have the opposite effect, heightening nationalistic identities and in turn perhaps causing xenophobic views against those seen with a different social or national identity (Ariely, 2011). Interestingly, Ariely (2011) found that in certain countries, while globalisation may decrease xenophobic attitudes in some people, it can increase them in others. While this study was actually based on xenophobic views against immigrants it paints an interesting picture that globalisation can have many different impacts on different people within the same country, and that context is incredibly important (Ariely, 2011). There are also negative aspects to consider such as the accelerated flows of terrorism, which have only promoted xenophobic attitudes due to the placing of blame on the lack of national borders – which globalisation has had a hand in reducing (Heine & Thakur, 2011). This essay explored the impact which globalisation has had upon individuals around the world. Whether a cosmopolitan citizen, learned or born bi-cultural, or an individual that has developed a strong cultural intelligence, the ability to adapt and understand other cultures seems to reduce the ownership of xenophobic attitudes. The essay found that as individuals gain a greater cultural intelligence, or identify as cosmopolitan or global citizens, they tend to identify less with their national culture/identity and identify more with a global identity. Using social identity theory from Ariely (2011), it can therefore be argued that while xenophobia is usually based on the differences between social, cultural, or national groups – the fact that more people are identifying as global citizens is reducing the differences between these groups around the world, and therefore reducing xenophobic attitudes. References Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C., Ng, K., Templer, K., Tay, C. and Chandrasekar, N. (2007). Cultural Intelligence: Its Measurement and Effects on Cultural Judgment and Decision Making, Cultural Adaptation and Task Performance. Management and Organization Review, 3(03), pp.335-371. Ariely, G. (2011). Globalization, immigration and national identity: How the level of globalization affects the relations between nationalism, constructive patriotism and attitudes toward immigrants? Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 15(4), pp.539-557. Ariely, G. (2016). Global identification, xenophobia and globalisation: A cross-national exploration. International Journal of Psychology, 52, pp.87-96. Arnett, J. (2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57(10), pp.774-783. Berry, J. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(6), pp.697-712. Buckley, P. and Ghauri, P. (2004). Globalisation, economic geography and the strategy of multinational enterprises. Journal of International Business Studies, 35(2), pp.81-98. Collings, D., Scullion, H. and Morley, M. (2007). Changing patterns of global staffing in the multinational enterprise: Challenges to the conventional expatriate assignment and emerging alternatives. Journal of World Business, 42(2), pp.198-213. Crowne, K. (2008). What leads to cultural intelligence? Business Horizons, 51(5), pp.391-399. Dorfman, P. House, R., Javidan, M., and Hanges, P. (2002). Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: an introduction to project GLOBE. Journal of World Business, 37(1), pp.3-10. Earley, P. (2002). Redefining interactions across cultures and organizations: Moving forward with cultural intelligence. Research in Organizational Behavior, 24, pp.271-299. Elenkov, D. and Manev, I. (2009). Senior expatriate leaderships effects on innovation and the role of cultural intelligence. Journal of World Business, 44(4), pp.357-369. Gupta, A. and Govindarajan, V. (2002). Cultivating a global mindset. Academy of Management Executive, 16(1), pp.116-126. Heine, J. and Thakur, R. (2018). The dark side of globalisation. [online] Available at: https://www.cigionline.org/articles/dark-side-globalisation. Held, D. and McGrew, A. (1999). Global Transformations. Cambridge: Polity. Hong, Y., Morris, M., Chiu, C. and Benet-Martà ­nez, V. (2000). Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. American Psychologist, 55(7), pp.709-720. Lee, H-J., (2018). Global Leadership and Cultural Intelligence. Lee, H-J., (2014) Global leadership practices: a cross-cultural management perspective, London: Palgrave Macmillan Sanchez, J., Spector, P. and Cooper, C. (2000). Adapting to a boundaryless world: A developmental expatriate model. Academy of Management Perspectives, 14(2), pp.96-106. Sideri, S. (1997). Globalisation and regional integration. The European Journal of Development Research, 9(1), pp.38-82. Smith, A. D. (2007). Nationalism in decline? In M. Young, E. Zuelow & A. Strum (Eds.), Nationalism in a global era (pp. 17–32). New York, NY: Routledge. Templer, K., Tay, C. and Chandrasekar, N. (2006). Motivational Cultural Intelligence, Realistic Job Preview, Realistic Living Conditions Preview, and Cross-Cultural Adjustment. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), pp.154-173. Triandis, H. (2006). Cultural Intelligence in Organizations. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), pp.20-26. UNESCO (2018). Xenophobia | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. [online] Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/xenophobia/. Woodward, I., Skrbis, Z. and Bean, C. (2008). Attitudes towards globalization and cosmopolitanism: cultural diversity, personal consumption and the national economy. The British Journal of Sociology, 59(2), pp.207-226.